A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z abstract (1) Summary, usually of an article or book, also containing sufficient information for the original to be located. (2) Summary of the complete content of the project report. access (1) The process involved in gaining entry into an organisation to undertake research. (2) The situation where a research participant is willing to share data with a researcher. See also cognitive access, continuing access, physical access. action research Research strategy concerned with the management of a change and involving close collaboration between practitioners and researchers. The results flowing from action research should also inform other contexts. active response rate The total number of responses divided by the total number in the sample after ineligible and unreachable respondents have been excluded. See ineligible respondent, unreachable respondent. active voice The voice in which the action of the verb is attributed to the person. For example, ‘I conducted interviews’. analysis The ability to break down data and to clarify the nature of the component parts and the relationship between them. analysis of variance Statistical test to determine the probability (likelihood) that the values of a quantifiable data variable for three or more independent samples or groups are different. The test assesses the likelihood of any difference between these groups occurring by chance alone. analytic induction Analysis of qualitative data that involves the iterative examination of a number of strategically selected cases to identify the cause of a particular phenomenon. analytic reflection The process of enquiry often used in the participant as observer role whereby key informants are encouraged to reflect analytically on the processes in which they are involved. This stems from the fact that research subjects know the identity of the researcher and, consequently, the researcher asks questions of those subjects promoting in the research subjects the process of analytic reflection. See also participant as observer. ANOVA See analysis of variance. appendix A supplement to the project report. It should not normally include material that is essential for the understanding of the report itself, but additional relevant material in which the reader may be interested. application The ability to apply certain principles and rules in particular situations. applied research Research of direct and immediate relevance to practitioners that addresses issues they see as important and is presented in ways they can understand and act upon. attribute variable Variable that records data about respondents’ characteristics, in other words things they possess. bar chart Diagram for showing frequency distributions for a categorical or grouped discrete data variable, which highlights the highest and lowest values. base period The period against which index numbers are calculated to facilitate comparisons of trends or changes over time. See also index number. basic research Research undertaken purely to understand processes and their outcomes, predominantly in universities as a result of an academic agenda, for which the key consumer is the academic community. behaviour variable Variable that records what respondents actually do. bibliographic details The information needed to enable readers to find original items consulted or used for a research project. These normally include the author, date of publication, title of article, title of book or journal. Full details are given in Table 3.6. bibliography Alphabetical list of the bibliographic details for all relevant items consulted and used, including those items not referred to directly in the text. The university will specify the format of these. Boolean logic System by which the variety of items found in a search based on logical propositions that can be either true or false can be combined, limited or widened. box plot Diagram that provides a pictorial representation of the distribution of the data for a variable and statistics such as median, interquartile range, and the highest and lowest values. brainstorming Technique that can be used to generate and refine research ideas. It is best undertaken with a group of people. broker See gatekeeper.
case (1) Individual element or group member within a sample or population such as an employee. (2) Individual unit for which data have been collected. case study Research strategy that involves the empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, using multiple sources of evidence. categorical data Data whose values cannot be measured numerically but can either be classified into sets (categories) or placed in rank order. category question Closed question in which the respondent is offered a set of mutually exclusive categories and instructed to select one. causal relationship Relationship between two or more variables in which the change (effect) in one variable is caused by the other variable(s). census The collection and analysis of data from every possible case or group member in a population. central tendency measure The generic term for statistics that can be used to provide an impression of those values for a variable that are common, middling or average. chi square test Statistical test to determine the probability (likelihood) that two categorical data variables are associated. A common use is to discover whether there are statistically significant differences between the observed frequencies and the expected frequencies of two variables presented in a cross-tabulation. closed question Question that provides a number of alternative answers from which the respondent is instructed to choose. cluster sampling Probability sampling procedure in which the population is divided into discrete groups or clusters prior to sampling. A random sample (systematic or simple) of these clusters is then drawn. codebook Complete list of all the codes used to code data variables. code of ethics Statement of principles and procedures for the design and conduct of research. See also privacy, research ethics, research ethics committee. coefficient of determination See regression coefficient. coefficient of variation Statistic that compares the extent of spread of data values around the mean between two or more variables containing quantifiable data. cognitive access The process of gaining access to data from intended participants. This involves participants agreeing to be interviewed or observed, within agreed limits. See also informed consent. cohort study Study that collects data from the same cases over time using a series of ‘snapshots’. comparative proportional pie chart Diagram for comparing both proportions and totals for all types of data variables. compiled data Data that have been processed, such as through some form of selection or summarising. complete observer Observational role in which the researcher does not reveal the purpose of the research activity to those being observed. However, unlike the complete participant role, the researcher does not take part in the activities of the group being studied. complete participant Observational role in which the researcher attempts to become a member of the group in which research is being conducted. The true purpose of the research is not revealed to the group members. computer-aided personal interviewing (CAPI) Type of interviewing in which the interviewer reads questions from a computer screen and enters the respondent’s answers directly into the computer. computer-aided telephone interviewing (CATI) Type of telephone interviewing in which the interviewer reads questions from a computer screen and enters the respondent’s answers directly into the computer. computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) Analytical software that may be used in one or more of the following processes when analysing qualitative data: project management, coding and retrieval, data management, and hypothesis building and theorising. conclusion The section of the project report in which judgements are made rather than just facts reported. New material is not normally introduced in the conclusion. consent See informed consent. content validity See face validity. contingency table Technique for summarising data from two or more variables so that specific values can be read. continuing access Gaining agreed research access to an organisation on an incremental basis. continuous data Data whose values can theoretically take any value (sometimes within a restricted range) provided they can be measured with sufficient accuracy. controlled index language The terms and phrases used by databases to index items within the database. If search terms do not match the controlled index language, the search is likely to be unsuccessful. controls to allow the testing of hypotheses Ways of being sure that the outcome being measured (the dependent variable) is caused by the predicted phenomena alone (the independent variable) rather than extraneous unpredicted variables. convenience sampling Non-probability sampling procedure in which cases are selected haphazardly on the basis that they are easiest to obtain. correlation The extent to which two variables are related to each other. See also correlation coefficient, negative correlation, positive correlation. correlation coefficient Number between 1 and 1 representing the strength of the relationship between two ranked or quantifiable variables. A value of 1 represents a perfect positive correlation. A value of 1 represents a perfect negative correlation. Correlation coefficients between 1 and 1 represent weaker positive and negative correlations, a value of 0 meaning the variables are perfectly independent. See also negative correlation, Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient, positive correlation, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. coverage The extent to which a data set covers the population it is intended to cover. covering letter Letter accompanying a questionnaire, which explains the purpose of the survey. See also introductory letter. covert research Research undertaken where those being researched are not aware of this fact. creative thinking technique One of a number of techniques for generating and refining research ideas based on non-rational criteria. These may be, for example, biased heavily in favour of the individual’s preferences or the spontaneous ideas of the individual or others. See also brainstorming, Delphi technique, relevance tree. critical literature review Detailed and justified analysis and commentary of the merits and faults of the literature within a chosen area, which demonstrates familiarity with what is already known about your research topic. cross-sectional research The study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time, i.e. a ‘snapshot’. cross-tabulation See contingency table.
data Facts, opinions and statistics that have been collected together and recorded for reference or for analysis. data display and analysis A process for the collection and analysis of qualitative data that involves three concurrent subprocesses of data reduction, data display, and drawing and verifying conclusions. data matrix The table format in which data are usually entered into analysis software consisting of rows (cases) and columns (variables). data requirements table A table designed to ensure that, when completed, the data collected will enable the research question(s) to be answered and the objectives achieved. debriefing Providing research participants with a retrospective explanation about a research project and its purpose where covert observation has occurred. deception Deceiving participants about the nature, purpose or use of research by the researcher(s). See also informed consent, research ethics. deductive approach Research approach involving the testing of a theoretical proposition by the employment of a research strategy specifically designed for the purpose of its testing. deliberate distortion Form of bias that occurs when data are recorded inaccurately on purpose. It is most common for secondary data sources such as organisational records. delivery and collection questionnaire Data collection technique in which the questionnaire is delivered to each respondent. She or he then reads and answers the same set of questions in a predetermined order without an interviewer being present before the completed questionnaire is collected. Delphi technique Technique using a group of people who are either involved or interested in the research topic to generate and select a more specific research idea. dependent variable Variable that changes in response to changes in other variables. descriptive data Data whose values cannot be measured numerically but can be distinguished by classifying into sets (categories). descriptive observation Observation where the researcher concentrates on observing the physical setting, the key participants and their activities, particular events and their sequence and the attendant processes and emotions involved. descriptive research Research for which the purpose is to produce an accurate representation of persons, events or situations. descriptive statistics Generic term for statistics that can be used to describe variables. discrete data Data whose values are measured in discrete units and therefore can take only one of a finite number of values from a scale that measures changes in this way. discussion The section of the project report in which the wider implications of the findings (and conclusions) are considered. dispersion measures Generic term for statistics that can be used to provide an impression of how the values for a variable are dispersed around the central tendency. dissertation The usual name for research projects undertaken as part of undergraduate and taught masters degrees. Dissertations are usually written for an academic audience. documentary secondary data Written documents such as notices, minutes of meetings, diaries, administrative and public records and reports to shareholders as well as non-written documents such as tape and video recordings, pictures, films and television programmes. ecological validity A kind of external validity referring to the extent to which findings can be generalised from one group to another. See also external validity. ethics See research ethics, research ethics committees, code of ethics. ethnography Research strategy that focuses upon describing and interpreting the social world through first-hand field study. evaluation The process of judging materials or methods in terms of internal accuracy and consistency or by comparison with external criteria. experiential data Data about the researcher’s perceptions and feelings as the process the research develops. experiential meaning The equivalence of meaning of a word or sentence for different people in their everyday experiences. experiment Research strategy that involves the definition of a theoretical hypothesis; the selection of samples of individuals from known populations; the allocation of samples to different experimental conditions; the introduction of planned change on one or more of the variables; and measurement on a small number of variables and control of other variables. expert system Computer-based system that contains much of the knowledge used by experts in a specific field and is designed to assist non-experts in problem solving. explanation building Deductive process for analysing qualitative data that involves the iterative examination of a number of strategically selected cases to test a theoretical proposition. explanatory study Research that focuses on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationships between variables. exploratory data analysis (EDA) Approach to data analysis that emphasises the use of diagrams to explore and understand the data. exploratory study Research that aims to seek new insights into phenomena, to ask questions, and to assess the phenomena in a new light. external researcher Researcher who wishes to gain access to an organisation for which she or he does not work. See also access, internal researcher. external validity The extent to which the research results from a particular study are generalisable to all relevant contexts. face validity Agreement that a question, scale, or measure appears logically to reflect accurately what it was intended to measure. filter question Closed question that identifies those respondents for whom the following question or questions are not applicable, enabling them to skip these questions. focus group Group interview, composed of a small number of participants, facilitated by a ‘moderator’, in which discussion is focused on aspects of a given theme or topic. follow-up Contact made with respondents to thank them for completing and returning a survey and to remind non-respondents to complete and return their surveys. forced-choice question See closed question. free text searching Feature that allows searching of an entire database rather than just those terms included in the controlled index language. frequency distribution Table for summarising data from one variable so that specific values can be read. fundamental research See basic research.
Gantt chart Chart that provides a simple visual representation of the tasks or activities that make up a project, each being plotted against a time line. gatekeeper The person, often in an organisation, who controls research access. general focus research question Question that flows from the research idea and may lead to several more detailed questions or the definition of research objectives. generalisability The applicability of the results of a research study to other settings. generalisation The making of more widely applicable propositions based upon the process of deduction from specific cases. grammatical error Error of grammar that detracts from the authority of the project report. grey literature See primary literature. grid question Series of two or more closed questions in which each respondent’s answers are recorded using the same matrix. grounded theory Research strategy in which theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations or interviews principally involving an inductive approach. See also deductive approach, inductive approach. group interview Interview facilitated by a ‘moderator’, in which a small number of participants engage in a fairly free-flowing discussion, where the identification of jointly constructed meanings, explanations and/or themes for subsequent research may be important.
habituation Situation where, in observation studies, the subjects being observed become familiar with the process of observation so that they take it for granted. This is an attempt to overcome ‘observer effect’ or reactivity. histogram Diagram for showing frequency distributions for a grouped continuous data variable in which the area of each bar represents the frequency of occurrence. hypothesis Testable proposition about the relationship between two or more events or concepts. idiomatic meaning The meaning ascribed to a group of words that are natural to a native speaker, but which is not deducible from the individual words. independent groups t-test Statistical test to determine the probability (likelihood) that the values of a quantifiable data variable for two independent samples or groups are different. The test assesses the likelihood of any difference between these two groups occurring by chance alone. independent variable Variable that causes changes to a dependent variable or variables. in-depth interview See unstructured interview. index number Summary data value calculated from a base period for quantifiable variables, to facilitate comparisons of trends or changes over time. See also base period. inductive approach Research approach involving the development of a theory as a result of the observation of empirical data. ineligible respondent Respondent selected for a sample who does not meet the requirements of the research. informant interview Interview guided by the perceptions of the interviewee. informant verification Form of triangulation in which the researcher presents written accounts of, for example, interview notes to informants for them to verify the content. See also triangulation. informed consent Position achieved when intended participants are fully informed about the nature, purpose and use of research to be undertaken and their role within it, and where their consent to participate, if provided, is freely given. See also deception. integer A whole number. intelligence gathering The gathering of facts or descriptive research. inter-library loan System for borrowing a book or obtaining a copy of a journal article from another library. internal researcher Person who conducts research within an organisation for which they work. See also cognitive access, external researcher. interpretivism Research philosophy that requires the researcher to seek to understand the subjective reality and meanings of participants. inter-quartile range The difference between the upper and lower quartiles, representing the middle 50% of the data when the data values for a variable have been ranked. interviewee bias Attempt by an interviewee to construct an account that hides some data or when she or he presents herself or himself in a socially desirable role or situation. interviewer bias Attempt by an interviewer to introduce bias during the conduct of an interview, or where the appearance or behaviour of the interviewer has the effect of introducing bias in the interviewee’s responses. interviewer-administered questionnaire Data collection technique in which an interviewer reads the same set of questions to the respondent in a predetermined order and records his or her responses. See also structured interview, telephone questionnaire. introduction The opening to the project report, which gives the reader a clear idea of the central issue of concern of the research, states the research question(s) and research objectives, and explains the research context and the structure of the project report. introductory letter Request for research access, addressed to an intended participant or organisational broker/gatekeeper, stating the purpose of the research, the nature of the help being sought, and the requirements of agreeing to participate. See also covering letter, gatekeeper. intrusive research methods Methods that involve direct access to participants, including qualitative interviewing, observation, longitudinal research based on these methods and phenomenologically based approaches to research. See also access, cognitive access. investigative question One of a number of questions that need to be answered in order to address satisfactorily each research question and meet each objective. journal See professional journal, refereed academic journal. judgemental sampling See non-probability sampling.
key word Basic term that describes the research question(s) and objectives, which can be used in combination to search the tertiary literature. Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Statistical test to determine the probability (likelihood) that an observed set of values for each category of a variable differs from a specified distribution. A common use is to discover whether a sample differs significantly from the population from which it was selected.
lexical meaning The precise meaning of an individual word. Likert-style rating scale Scale that allows the respondent to indicate how strongly she or he agrees or disagrees with a statement. line graph Diagram for showing trends in longitudinal data for a variable. list question Closed question, in which the respondent is offered a list of items and instructed to select those that are appropriate. literature review See critical literature review. long-term trend The overall direction of movement of quantifiable data values for a single variable after variations have been smoothed out. See also moving average. longitudinal study The study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) over an extended period of time. lower quartile The value below which a quarter of the data values lie when the data values for a variable have been ranked. management report Abbreviated version of the project report, usually written for a practitioner audience. Normally includes a brief account of objectives, method, findings, conclusions and recommendations. mean The average value calculated by adding up the values of each case for a variable and dividing by the total number of cases. measurement validity The extent to which a scale or measuring instrument measures what it is intended to measure. median The middle value when all the values of a variable are arranged in rank order; sometimes known as the 50th percentile. method The tools and techniques used to obtain and analyse research data, including for example questionnaires, observation, interviews, and statistical and non-statistical techniques. methodology The theory of how research should be undertaken, including the theoretical and philosophical assumptions upon which research is based and the implications of these for the method or methods adopted. minimal interaction Process in which the observer tries as much as possible to ‘melt into the background’, having as little interaction as possible with the subjects of the observation. This is an attempt to overcome observer effect. See also observer effect. mode The value of a variable that occurs most frequently. Mode I knowledge creation Research of a fundamental rather than applied nature, in which the questions are set and solved by academic interests with little, if any, focus on exploitation of research by practitioners. Mode II knowledge creation Research of an applied nature, governed by the world of practice and highlighting the importance of collaboration both with and between practitioners. moderator Facilitator of group interviews. See also focus group, group interview. moving average Statistical method of smoothing out variations in quantifiable data recorded for a single variable over time to enable the long-term trend to be seen more clearly. See also long-term trend. multi-methods The combination of a number of data collection methods in one piece of research. multiple bar chart Diagram for comparing frequency distributions for categorical or grouped discrete or continuous data variables, which highlights the highest and lowest values. multiple dichotomy method Method of data coding using a separate variable for each possible response to an open question or an item in a list question. See also list question, open question. multiple line graph Diagram for comparing trends over time between quantifiable data variables. multiple regression analysis The process of calculating a regression coefficient and regression equation using two or more independent variables and one dependent variable. For data collected from a sample, there is also a need to calculate the probability of the regression coefficient having occurred by chance alone. See also regression analysis, regression coefficient, regression equation. multiple response method Method of data coding using the same number of variables as the maximum number of different responses to an open question or a list question by any one case. See also list question, open question. multiple source secondary data Secondary data created by combining two or more different data sets prior to the data being accessed for the research. These data sets can be based entirely on documentary or on survey data, or can be an amalgam of the two. multi-stage sampling Probability sampling procedure that is a development of cluster sampling. It involves taking a series of cluster samples, each of which uses random sampling (systematic or simple). narrative account The researcher’s detailed account of the research process, written in much the same style as that used by an investigative journalist. narrative analysis The collection and analysis of qualitative data that preserves the integrity and narrative value of data collected, thereby avoiding their fragmentation. negative correlation Relationship between two variables for which, as the values of one variable increase, the values of the other variable decrease. See also correlation coefficient. negative skew Distribution of quantifiable data for a variable in which the majority of the data are found bunched to the right, with a long tail to the left. netiquette General operating guidelines for using the Internet, including not sending junk emails. nominal data See descriptive data. non-probability sampling Selection of sampling techniques in which the chance or probability of each case being selected is not known. non-random sampling See non-probability sampling. non-standardised interview See semi-structured interview, unstructured interview. normal distribution Special form of the symmetric distribution in which the quantifiable data for a variable can be plotted as a bell-shaped curve. notebook of ideas Technique for noting down any interesting research ideas as you think of them. numeric rating scale Rating scale that uses numbers as response options to identify and record the respondent’s response. The end response options, and sometimes the middle, are labelled.
objectivity Avoidance of (conscious) bias and subjective selection during the conduct and reporting of research. In some research philosophies the researcher will recognise that interpretation is likely to be related to a set of values and therefore will attempt to recognise and explore this. observation The systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour. observer as participant Observational role in which the researcher observes activities without taking part in those activities in the same way as the ‘real’ research subjects. The researcher’s identity as a researcher and research purpose is clear to all concerned. See also participant as observer. observer bias This may occur when observers give inaccurate responses in order to distort the results of the research. observer effect The impact of being observed on how people act. See also habituation, reactivity. observer error Systematic errors made by observers, as a result of tiredness, for example. one-way analysis of variance See analysis of variance. on-line questionnaire Data collection technique in which the questionnaire is delivered via the Internet or an intranet to each respondent. She or he then reads and answers the same set of questions in a predetermined order without an interviewer being present before returning it electronically. open question Question allowing respondents to give answers in their own way. operationalisation The translation of concepts into tangible indicators of their existence. opinion variable Variable that records what respondents feel about something or what they think or believe is true or false. optical mark reader Data input device that recognises and converts marks on a data collection form such as a questionnaire into data that can be stored on a computer. ordinal data See ranked data.
paired t-test Statistical test to determine the probability (likelihood) that the values of two (a pair of) quantifiable data variables collected for same cases are different. The test assesses the likelihood of any difference between two variables (each half of the pair) occurring by chance alone. participant as observer Observational role in which the researcher takes part in and observes activities in the same way as the ‘real’ research subjects. The researcher’s identity as a researcher and research purpose is clear to all concerned. See also observer as participant. participant observation Observation in which the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of the research subjects and thus becomes a member of the subjects’ group(s), organisation(s) or community. See also complete observer, complete participant, observer as participant, participant as observer. participant researcher See internal researcher. passive voice The voice in which the subject of the sentence undergoes the action of the verb: for example, ‘interviews were conducted’. pattern matching Analysis of qualitative data involving the prediction of a pattern of outcomes based on theoretical propositions to seek to explain a set of findings. Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient Statistical test that assesses the strength of the relationship between two quantifiable data variables. For data collected from a sample there is also a need to calculate the probability of the correlation coefficient having occurred by chance alone. percentage component bar chart Diagram for comparing proportions for all types of data variables. personal data Category of data, defined in law, relating to identified or identifiable persons. personal entry Situation where the researcher needs to conduct research within an organisation, rather than rely on the use and completion of self-administered, postal questionnaires or the use of publicly available secondary data. See access. personal pronoun One of the pronouns used to refer to people: I, me, you, he, she, we, us, they, him, her, them. phenomenology Research philosophy that sees social phenomena as socially constructed, and is particularly concerned with generating meanings and gaining insights into those phenomena. physical access The initial level of gaining access to an organisation to conduct research. See also cognitive access, continuing access, gatekeeper. pie chart Diagram frequently used for showing proportions for a categorical data or a grouped continuous or discrete data variable. pilot test Small-scale study to test a questionnaire or interview checklist, to minimise the likelihood of respondents having problems in answering the questions and of data recording problems as well as to allow some assessment of the questions’ validity and the reliability of the data that will be collected. population The complete set of cases or group members. positive correlation Relationship between two variables for which, as the value of one variable increases, the values of the other variable also increase. See also correlation coefficient. positive skew Distribution of quantifiable data for a variable in which the majority of the data are found bunched to the left, with a long tail to the right. positivism Research philosophy that involves working with an observable social reality. The emphasis is on highly structured methodology to facilitate replication, and the end product can be law-like generalisations similar to those produced by the physical and natural scientists. postal questionnaire Data collection technique in which the questionnaire is delivered by post to each respondent. She or he then reads and answers the same set of questions in a predetermined order without an interviewer being present before returning it by post. PowerPoint Microsoft computer package that allows the presenter to design overhead slides using text, pictures, photographs etc., which lend a professional appearance. practitioner–researcher Role occupied by a researcher when she or he is conducting research in an organisation, often her or his own, while fulfilling her or his normal working role. pragmatism Research philosophy that employs the thinking of both the positivist and the phenomenologist. It applies a practical approach, integrating different perspectives to help collect and interpret data. See also phenomenology, positivism. pre-coding The process of incorporating coding schemes in questions prior to a questionnaire’s administration. preliminary search This way of searching the literature may be a useful way of generating research ideas. It may be based, for example, on lecture notes or course textbooks. preliminary study The process by which a research idea is refined in order to turn it into a research project. This may be simply a review of the relevant literature. pre-set codes Codes established prior to data collection and often included as part of the data collection form. pre-survey contact Contact made with a respondent to advise them of a forthcoming survey in which she or he will be asked to take part. primary data Data collected specifically for the research project being undertaken. primary literature The first occurrence of a piece of work, including published sources such as government white papers and planning documents and unpublished manuscript sources such as letters, memos and committee minutes. primary observation Observation where the researcher notes what happened or what was said at the time. This is often done by keeping a research diary. privacy Primary ethical concern relating to the rights of individuals not to participate in research and to their treatment where they agree to participate. See also research ethics, informed consent. probability sampling Selection of sampling techniques in which the chance, or probability, of each case being selected from the population is known and is not zero. probing questions Questions used to further explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. professional journal Journals produced by a professional organisation for its members, often containing articles of a practical nature related to professional needs. Articles in professional journals are usually not refereed. project report The term used in this book to refer generally to dissertations, theses and management reports. See also dissertation, management report, thesis. pure research See basic research. purposive sampling Non-probability sampling procedure in which the judgement of the researcher is used to select the cases that make up the sample. This can be done on the basis of extreme cases, heterogeneity (maximum variation), homogeneity (maximum similarity), critical cases, or typical cases. qualitative data Non-numerical data or data that have not been quantified. qualitative interview Collective term for semi-structured and unstructured interviews aimed at generating qualitative data. quantifiable data Data whose values can be measured numerically as quantities. quantitative data Numerical data or data that have been quantified. quantity question Closed question in which the respondent’s answer is recorded as a number giving the amount. questionnaire General term including all data collection techniques in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order. See also delivery and collection questionnaire, interviewer-administered questionnaire, on-line questionnaire, postal questionnaire, self-administered questionnaire. quota sampling Non-probability sampling procedure that ensures that the sample represents certain characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. random sampling See simple random sampling. range The difference between the highest and the lowest values for a variable. ranked data Data whose values cannot be measured numerically but which can be placed in a definite order (rank). ranking question Closed question in which the respondent is offered a list of items and instructed to place them in rank order. rating question Closed question in which a scaling device is used to record the respondent’s response. See also Likert-type rating scale, numeric rating scale, semantic differential rating scale. rational thinking technique One of a number of techniques for generating and refining research ideas based on a systematic approach such as searching the literature or examining past projects. raw data Data for which little, if any, data processing has taken place. reactivity Reaction by research participants to any research intervention that affects data reliability. See also habituation, observer effect. realism Research philosophy that believes in, and seeks to understand, the existence of an external and objective reality that influences people’s social interpretations and behaviours but which may not be perceptible to them. It recognises that people themselves are not objects to be studied in the style of natural science. re-coding The process of grouping or combining a variable’s codes to form a new variable, usually with less detailed categories. reductionism The idea that problems as a whole are better understood if they are reduced to the simplest possible elements. refereed academic journal Journal in which the articles have been evaluated by academic peers prior to publication to assess their quality and suitability. Not all academic journals are refereed. references, list of Bibliographic details of all items referred to directly in the text. The university will specify the format required. regression analysis The process of calculating a regression coefficient and regression equation using one independent variable and one dependent variable. For data collected from a sample, there is also a need to calculate the probability of the regression coefficient having occurred by chance alone. See also multiple regression analysis, regression coefficient, regression equation. regression coefficient Number between 0 and 1 that enables the strength of the relationship between a quantifiable dependent variable and one or more quantifiable independent variables to be assessed. The coefficient represents the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable that can be explained statistically by the independent variable or variables. A value of 1 means that all the variation in the dependent variable can be explained statistically by the independent variable(s). A value of 0 means that none of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by the independent variable(s). See also multiple regression analysis, regression analysis. regression equation Equation used to predict the values of a dependent variable given the values of one or more independent variables. The associated regression coefficient provides an indication of how good a predictor the regression equation is likely to be. See regression coefficient. relevance tree Technique for generating research topics that starts with a broad concept from which further (usually more specific) topics are generated. Each of these topics forms a separate branch, from which further sub-branches that are more detailed can be generated. reliability The degree to which data collection method or methods will yield consistent findings, similar observations would be made or conclusions reached by other researchers or there is transparency in how sense was made from the raw data. representative sample Sample that represents exactly the population from which it is drawn. representative sampling See probability sampling. research The systematic collection and interpretation of information with a clear purpose, to find things out. See also applied research, basic research. research ethics The appropriateness of the researcher’s behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of a research project, or who are affected by it. See also code of ethics, privacy, research ethics committee. research ethics committee Learned committee established to produce a code of research ethics, examine and approve or veto research proposals and advise in relation to the ethical dilemmas facing researchers during the conduct and reporting of research projects. See also code of ethics. research idea Initial idea that may be worked up into a research project. research objectives Clear, specific statements that identify what the researcher wishes to accomplish as a result of doing the research. research question One of a number of key questions that the research process will address. These are often the precursor of research objectives. research strategy General plan of how the researcher will go about answering the research question(s). respondent interview Interview directed by the questions posed by the interviewer, to which the interviewee responds. respondent The person who answers the questions usually either in an interview or on a questionnaire. response bias See interviewee bias. response rate See active response rate. review article Article, normally published in a refereed academic journal, that contains both a considered review of the state of knowledge in a given topic area and pointers towards areas where further research needs to be undertaken. See also refereed academic journal.
sample Subgroup or part of a larger population. sampling fraction The proportion of the total population selected for a probability sample. sampling frame The complete list of all the cases in the population, from which a probability sample is drawn. scale question See rating question. scale Measure of a concept, such as customer loyalty or organisational commitment, created by combining scores to a number of rating questions. scatter graph Diagram for showing the relationship between two quantifiable or ranked data variables. scientific research Research that involves the systematic observation of and experiment with phenomena. search engine Automated software that searches an index of documents on the Internet using key words and Boolean logic. secondary data Data used for a research project that were originally collected for some other purpose. See also documentary secondary data, multiple source secondary data, survey-based secondary data. secondary literature Subsequent publication of primary literature such as books and journals. secondary observation Statement made by an observer of what happened or was said. By necessity this involves that observer’s interpretations. self-administered questionnaire Data collection technique in which each respondent reads and answers the same set of questions in a predetermined order without an interviewer being present. self-selection sampling Non-probability sampling procedure in which the case, usually an individual, is allowed to identify their desire to be part of the sample. semantic differential rating scale Rating scale that allows the respondent to indicate his or her attitude to a concept defined by two opposite adjectives or phrases. semi-structured interview Wide-ranging category of interview in which the interviewer commences with a set of interview themes but is prepared to vary the order in which questions are asked and to ask new questions in the context of the research situation. sensitive personal data Category of data, defined in law, that refers to certain specified characteristics or beliefs relating to identified or identifiable persons. shadowing Process that the researcher would follow in order to gain a better understanding of the research context. This might involve following employees who are likely to be important in the research. simple random sampling Probability sampling procedure that ensures that each case in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. snowball sampling Non-probability sampling procedure in which subsequent respondents are obtained from information provided by initial respondents. social constructionism Research philosophy that views the social world as being socially constructed. social norm The type of behaviour that a person ought to adopt in a particular situation. socially desirable response Answer given by a respondent due to her or his desire, either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a different social role. source questionnaire The questionnaire that is to be translated from when translating a questionnaire. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient Statistical test that assesses the strength of the relationship between two ranked data variables. For data collected from a sample, there is also a need to calculate the probability of the correlation coefficient having occurred by chance alone. split infinitive Phrase consisting of an infinitive with an adverb inserted between ‘to’ and the verb: for example, ‘to readily agree’. stacked bar chart Diagram for comparing totals and subtotals for all types of data variable. standard deviation Statistic that describes the extent of spread of data values around the mean for a variable containing quantifiable data. statistical significance The likelihood of the pattern that is observed (or one more extreme) occurring by chance alone, if there really was no difference in the population from that which the sample was drawn. storyline The way in which the reader is led through the research project to the main conclusion or the answer to the research question. The storyline is, in effect, a clear theme that runs through the whole of the project report to convey a coherent and consistent message. stratified random sampling Probability sampling procedure in which the population is divided into two or more relevant strata and a random sample (systematic or simple) is drawn from each of the strata. structured interview Data collection technique in which an interviewer physically meets the respondent, reads them the same set of questions in a predetermined order, and records his or her response to each. structured methodology Data collection methods that are easily replicated (such as the use of an observation schedule or questionnaire) to ensure high reliability. subject directory Hierarchically organised index categorised into broad topics, which, as it has been compiled by people, is likely to have its content partly censored and evaluated. subject or participant bias Bias that may occur when research subjects are giving inaccurate responses in order to distort the results of the research. subject or participant error Errors that may occur when research subjects are studied in situations that are inconsistent with their normal behaviour patterns, leading to atypical responses. survey Research strategy that involves the structured collection of data from a sizeable population. Although the term ‘survey’ is often used to describe the collection of data using questionnaires, it includes other techniques such as structured observation and structured interviews. survey-based secondary data Data collected by surveys, such as by questionnaire, which have already been analysed for their original purpose. symbolic interactionism Social process through which the individual derives a sense of identity from interaction and communication with others. Through this process of interaction and communication the individual responds to others and adjusts his or her understandings and behaviour as a shared sense of order and reality is ‘negotiated’ with others. symmetric distribution Description of the distribution of data for a variable in which the data are distributed equally either side of the highest frequency. symmetry of potential outcomes Situation in which the results of the research will be of similar value whatever they are. synthesis Process of arranging and assembling various elements so as to make a new statement, or conclusion. systematic sampling Probability sampling procedure in which the initial sampling point is selected at random, and then the cases are selected at regular intervals.
table Technique for summarising data from one or more variables so that specific values can be read. See also contingency table, frequency distribution. tailored design method Approach to designing questionnaires specifying precisely how to construct and use them; previously referred to as the ‘total design method’. target questionnaire The translated questionnaire when translating from a source questionnaire. telephone questionnaire Data collection technique in which an interviewer contacts the respondent and administers the questionnaire using a telephone. The interviewer reads the same set of questions to the respondent in a predetermined order and records his or her responses. template analysis Analysis of qualitative data that involves creating and developing a hierarchical template of data codes or categories representing themes revealed in the data collected and the relationships between these. tense The form taken by the verb to indicate the time of the action (i.e. past, present or future). tertiary literature source Source designed to help locate primary and secondary literature, such as an index, abstract, encyclopaedia or bibliography. theory Formulation regarding the cause and effect relationships between two or more variables, which may or may not have been tested. theory dependent If we accept that every purposive decision we take is based on the assumption that certain consequences will flow from the decision, then these decisions are theory dependent. thesis The usual name for research projects undertaken for Master of Philosophy (MPhil) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees, written for an academic audience. time error Error, usually associated with structured observations, where the time at which the observation is being conducted provides data that are untypical of the time period in which the event(s) being studied would normally occur. time series Set of quantifiable data values recorded for a single variable over time usually at regular intervals. See also moving average. triangulation The use of two or more independent sources of data or data collection methods within one study in order to help ensure that the data are telling you what you think they are telling you. t-test See independent groups t-test, paired t-test. Type I error Error made by wrongly coming to the decision that something is true when in reality it is not. Type II error Error made by wrongly coming to the decision that something is not true when in reality it is. unreachable respondent Respondent selected for a sample who cannot be located or who cannot be contacted. unstructured interview Loosely structured and informally conducted interview that may commence with one or more themes to explore with participants but without a predetermined list of questions to work through. See also informant interview. upper quartile The value above which a quarter of the data values lie when the data values for a variable have been ranked. validity (1) The extent to which data collection method or methods accurately measure what they were intended to measure. (2) The extent to which research findings are really about what they profess to be about. variable Individual element or attribute upon which data have been collected. visual aid Item such as an overhead projector slide, whiteboard, video recording or handout that is designed to enhance professional presentation and the learning of the audience.
weighting The process by which data values are adjusted to reflect differences in the proportion of the population that each case represents.
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